By istorija 
The medieval concept of knighthood is deeply intertwined with images of armored men, brotherhoods in arms, and strictly masculine codes of chivalry. Historical consensus long maintained that warfare and the elite status of the knight were exclusively male domains. However, modern historiography reveals a far more nuanced reality: women warriors in the Middle Ages not only existed, but occasionally crossed institutional boundaries to bear arms, command garrisons, and even participate in custom-designed chivalric systems.
While the formal investiture of women as knights remained an exceptional anomaly, historical records, legal codes, and contemporary chronicles demonstrate that women regularly assumed military responsibilities when dynastic survival or regional defense demanded it. By examining these accounts, we can look beyond the romanticized mythology and uncover the structural, legal, and martial roles of women on the medieval battlefield.
Joan of Arc: The Icon of Female Military Leadership
No discussion of medieval women in warfare is complete without Joan of Arc (Jeanne d’Arc). Operating during the brutal final phase of the Hundred Years’ War, Joan transitioned from an illiterate peasant girl into a central figure of the French military response against English occupation.
From a strict historiographical standpoint, Joan of Arc was not a formally dubbed knight. However, she assumed the practical and visual identity of one. Appointed by the Dauphin Charles VII to accompany French forces, she donned custom-made knight’s plate armor, wielded a sword, and carried her famous banner into the thick of combat at the Siege of Orléans (1429).
While historians continue to debate the exact extent of her tactical input versus that of professional royal captains, Joan’s role as a catalyst was undeniable. She consistently encouraged aggressive offensive action, transformed the psychological framework of the conflict, and played a major role in restoring morale to a shattered army. Her execution at the stake in 1431 on charges of cross-dressing highlights how profoundly her adoption of the male knight’s attire challenged the theological and social hierarchies of her era.
Women Knights and Female Chivalric Orders
While Joan of Arc operated as an extraordinary individual, there are documented instances where the institutional apparatus of knighthood was adapted to include women, particularly during times of existential military crises.
Crusaders and Cross-Dressing: The Chronicles of Honiates
The chaotic nature of the Crusades frequently blurred traditional gender roles. The Byzantine chronicler Nicetas Choniates, recording the passage of the Second Crusade through Constantinople in 1147, noted an astonishing sight among the Western armies. He observed women riding horses astride, dressed in masculine military attire, armed with lances, and appearing “more masculine than the Amazons.” While these women were largely part of the aristocratic entourages rather than regular frontline shock cavalry, their presence in full military harness demonstrates that the visual and functional boundaries of knighthood were occasionally fluid.
The Order of the Hatchet (Orden de la Hacha)
The clearest example of institutional female knighthood occurred in Catalonia in 1149. Following the successful siege of Tortosa from the Moors, the town was left vulnerable when its count, Raymond Berenger IV, marched his army away. Seizing the opportunity, Moorish forces launched a counter-offensive to retake the city. In response, the women of Tortosa donned armor, wielded whatever weapons were available—most notably hatchets—and successfully repelled the invaders.
To honor their extraordinary valor, Raymond Berenger founded the Order of the Hatchet (Orden de la Hacha). The women admitted to this order received unprecedented feudal privileges:
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Exemption from all regional taxes.
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The right to wear a specific military habit featuring a red hatchet.
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Precedence over men in public gatherings and assemblies.
Though the order functioned primarily as an honorary society that ceased to exist after the passing of its original defenders, it remains a rare, formalized institutional recognition of female combatants in medieval Europe.
Martial Roles in Medieval Byzantium and Serbia
The legal and cultural frameworks of Eastern Europe and the Balkans also offer compelling evidence regarding women’s relationship with military property and warfare.
The Legal Framework: The Dušan Code and Feudal Inheritance
In the medieval Serbian Empire under Tsar Stefan Dušan, the relationship between women and military property was legally protected. According to the Dušan Code (Dušanov zakonik), aristocratic women (vlastelinke) possessed specific rights regarding land inheritance and property management. If a noble family lacked male heirs, women could inherit the family baština (feudal estate)—which carried explicit obligations to provide military equipment and soldiers for the Tsar’s army. Under these laws, women could legally inherit, manage, and dispose of military assets, positioning them as logistical overseers of feudal military structures.
Jelena Lazarević: The Political and Military Defense of Noble Estates
A prominent practical example of this dynamic is Jelena Lazarević (daughter of Prince Lazar and Princess Milica). While popular lore sometimes imagines medieval noblewomen fighting on the front lines, Jelena’s real historical impact was that of a powerful feudal ruler and diplomat. Left to manage and defend her territories—particularly her islands and fortifications on Lake Skadar—Jelena proved to be a shrewd political and military strategist.
Her surviving diplomatic correspondence and contemporary archives confirm her active involvement in military logistics. She directly commanded garrisons, orchestrated defensive maneuvers, and used her feudal resources to secure her domain against Venetian and Ottoman encroachments. Her authority stems directly from her position as a noble widow defending her family’s dynastic rights.
Cross-Astride Riding in Constantinople
The subversion of gendered equestrian customs was also documented in late Byzantium. In 1435, the French traveler Bertrandon de la Broquière visited Constantinople and recorded his observations of Empress Maria Palaiologina. Broquière noted with surprise that the Empress, along with her female attendants, rode her horse in a masculine fashion (astride) rather than side-saddle, which was the rigid norm for Western European noblewomen. Furthermore, her attendants were dressed in masculine attire suitable for hunting and war, reflecting a pragmatic adaptation of clothing to the demands of outdoor, elite, and military court life.
Warrior Queens: Strategy, Authority, and Armor
For medieval queens, the line between political sovereignty and military command was virtually non-existent. When a kingdom faced invasion or internal rebellion, queens were expected to act as commanders-in-chief.
Eleanor of Aquitaine: The Crusader Queen
Eleanor of Aquitaine remains one of the most powerful figures of the High Middle Ages. As the Duchess of Aquitaine in her own right, she accompanied her first husband, King Louis VII of France, on the Second Crusade. Later legendary accounts criticized Eleanor by claiming she and her ladies dressed as Amazons and galloped to the Holy Land in full armor.
While modern historians recognize this as a hyperbolic narrative designed to criticize her political interference, the core reality remains: Eleanor was the feudal overlord of the massive Aquitaine contingent. She managed military logistics, funded knights, and maintained direct political authority over her troops on the path to Jerusalem, demonstrating that a medieval woman could wield decisive military authority.
Blanche of Castile: The Defender of the Realm
Faced with open rebellion from French barons and an impending English invasion, Blanche of Castile (serving as regent for her young son, Louis IX) proved to be an exceptionally capable military coordinator. Blanche did not merely hide behind castle walls; she actively organized the defense of France, levied armies, oversaw defensive logistics, and physically accompanied her troops to the field to maintain military cohesion. Her strategic decisiveness broke the baronial coalition and preserved the stability of the French Crown, proving that the execution of military command was fully within the capabilities of a medieval queen.
Feudal Reality: How Women Commanded Legally
To understand the historical background of female military authority, it is essential to look at medieval property laws. In high feudalism, military obligation was tied directly to land ownership (fiefs).
When a noble husband died or went on Crusade, his widow legally became the temporary or permanent holder of the estate. Under the principle of custodia (guardianship), she was legally responsible for fulfilling the military duties attached to the land. This meant that while a woman might not fight in the shield wall, she had the legal and institutional authority to levy troops, appoint captains, fortify strongholds, and dictate defensive strategy. Warfare in the Middle Ages was heavily administrative, and in this sphere, noblewomen held immense structural power.
Historical Breakdown: Myth vs. Medieval Reality
To capture the true historical complexity of women’s involvement in medieval warfare, we can contrast popular modern myths with verified contemporary scholarship:
| Popular Misconception | Historical Reality |
|---|---|
| Medieval warfare was 100% male | Women frequently engaged in warfare, particularly in defending besieged cities, managing logistics, and ruling military fiefs. |
| Women were regularly dubbed as knights | Formal knightly investiture (dubbing) remained an almost exclusively male ritual, with rare institutional exceptions like the Order of the Hatchet. |
| Warrior queens fought as frontline duelists | Queens like Eleanor and Blanche ruled as strategic commanders-in-chief, managing political coalitions, funding, and troop movements. |
| Women only took arms in peasant revolts | Aristocratic women and noble widows wielded significant military authority due to feudal property and inheritance laws. |
Conclusion: Redefining the Chivalric Narrative
Ultimately, the phenomenon of the female warrior in the Middle Ages must be understood through the lens of pragmatic necessity rather than modern ideological concepts. Documented instances of women donning armor and commanding troops were uncommon, yet they occurred with enough frequency to challenge the idea of an exclusively male military sphere.
Whether operating as charismatic leaders like Joan of Arc, organized defenders like the Order of the Hatchet, or powerful feudal managers like Jelena Lazarević, these women utilized the tools, aesthetics, and virtues of chivalry to navigate a highly volatile world. Their legacy serves as a vital reminder that medieval warfare was not just a matter of physical strength, but an arena of strategic intelligence, political authority, and adaptive resilience that frequently transcended the strict boundaries of gender.
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